Stakeholders and alcohol policy--论文代写范文

另一方面,应考虑的成本中，短期的调整成本也是十分重要的。酒精生产部门的投资大大增加,与高水平的生产力,有一定关联。在一些国家,酿酒行业的创新导致增加了五倍。下面的essay代写范文进行论述。

Introduction
  Reducing alcohol-related harm inherently requires multi-component action, involving the activities of many stakeholders other than health impinging on the potential of harmful alcohol use. In the fiscal sector, alcohol taxes can not only reduce the harm done by alcohol, including to people other than the drinker, but can also bring in extra government revenue (9). Taxes can be set at their maximum revenue potential, although that is seldom achieved. Such taxes are also an efficient source of revenue to fund publicly-provided, equity-enhancing programmes that can be used to reduce inequalities. 

  Despite the simplicity of the implicit model sometimes suggested in debates (reduced consumption leads to reduced output leads to job losses leads to higher unemployment), most of these connections in practice require assumptions that rarely hold fully (10). For example, if people spend less money on alcohol, they will spend more money on other goods, which will create jobs elsewhere in the economy. In the long run, the evidence suggests that the effect of alcohol policy on employment would effectively be zero. On the other hand, the costs that should be considered are the adjustment costs in the medium and short term, i.e. over a matter of a few years. Capital investment has increased considerably in the alcohol production sector and is associated with higher levels of productivity, particularly for beer and spirits. In some countries, innovation in the brewing industry has led to a fivefold increase in the amount of beer produced per employee. Similarly for wine, mechanical harvesting and pruning are increasingly used in lower-quality as well as higher-quality production, while the labour intensity of wine grape production has been reduced by mechanization and the computerization of irrigation. A greater number of jobs are linked with alcohol in other sectors, particularly retail and the hotels, restaurants and catering sector. Here, in general, adjustment costs will be much lower than for drinks production (10).

  There are significant commercial interests involved in promoting the manufacture, distribution, pricing and sale of alcohol (11). The alcohol beverage industry consists of relatively large-scale producers and wholesalers who market alcoholic beverages to retailers, who then distribute them through bars, restaurants and off-premise establishments for sale to consumers. The alcohol industry has become increasingly involved in the policy arena in order to protect its commercial interests. A common claim among public health professionals is that the representatives of the alcohol industry are influential in setting the policy agenda, shaping the perspectives of legislators on policy issues and determining the outcome of policy debates. To promote their interests and influence on national policy decisions, industry sources have funded a network of national, regional and global “social aspects” organizations which sponsor selected prevention initiatives or industryfriendly views on alcohol problems and policies through promoting the concept of corporate social responsibility (12). 

  The Economist has pointed out that caution should be exercised against the role of the private sector in trying to do the work of governments, which are the proper guardians of the public interest, are accountable to all citizens to set goals for regulators, deal with externalities, mediate among different interests, attend to the demands of social justice and provide public goods and collect the taxes to pay for them (13). Thus it has been argued that the responsibilities of economic operators in reducing the harm done by alcohol should be related to their product, the core of their businesses. For example, economic operators could consider ways in which the price and strength of their product can be managed to reduce harm, such as commitments to support regulation for a minimum pricing structure. Producers and retailers could commit themselves to share intelligence and knowledge of illegally traded and illicit alcohol, together with a commitment to support Europe-wide tax stamps and mechanisms to track the movements of all alcohol products in the distribution chain.

  To be effective, alcohol policy must also allow an expression of voice from civil society to counteract the vested trade interests which often dominate political decision-making (14). Nongovernmental organizations are important partners for all elements of alcohol policy as they are a vital component o modern civil society, raising people’s awareness of issues and their concerns, advocating change and creating a dialogue on policy (15).

 Alcohol policy at different jurisdictional levels 
  While alcohol policies have traditionally been a matter for country and subcountry levels of administration, in recent decades this situation has in many ways been transformed (7). Along with greatly increased trade and travel have come much greater opportunities for the transfer of alcoholic beverages across national borders, whether as legal imports or as smuggled goods. Transnational aspects of alcohol production and distribution have grown enormously in terms of exports and imports, of rapidly consolidating multinational producers, of international licensing and co-production arrangements, and of multinational advertising agencies to promote the products. 

  More important than any of these factors, however, has been the growth of supranational common markets and international trade agreements. The level of jurisdictional responsibilities for alcohol policies varies from country to country, with differing responsibilities at country or federal level, at regional level and at municipal or local level. Enacting policy at the local level has a number of advantages (7). Local citizens are close to where alcohol problems are experienced personally. The community must deal with injuries and deaths from road traffic accidents. It must provide hospital and emergency medical services and interventions for people with harmful alcohol use and alcohol dependence. Alcohol problems are experienced personally by community members, and efforts to prevent or reduce future problems are also a personal matter. 

  When local policy advocates propose future policy positions, they also encounter those who may oppose such policies and who may have vested interests. This means that policy can create, in a local forum, a debate between opposing community groups and thus draw news media attention to such issues. Urban settings can also be risk factors for harmful alcohol use and harmful patterns of drinking, particularly in areas of low social capital and when cities develop the night-time economy and nuisance and harassment from other people’s drinking is common (16). When alcohol policies and programmes are devolved to jurisdictions within countries, including local government authorities and municipalities, it is vital that national or regional legislation enables rather than restricts the ability of local government authorities and municipalities to act (17). It is also important to avoid the risk that the least cost–effective policies, including education, are adopted in local policies.（essay代写)

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