Organizational Culture and Internationalization--论文代写范文精选

在理念和价值观上触动教育企业。至关重要的是,认为全面国际化是势在必行的,影响所有的校园生活。国际化是一个越来越高的高等教育机构的议程,以应对内部和外部利益相关者的压力和期望。下面的essay代写范文进行论述。

Abstract
  This brief literature review introduces an area of emerging research about the impact of organizational culture on institutional strategies for internationalization. The review begins by introducing the concept of organizational culture, particularly within higher education. Five articles published between 2003 and 2012 are examined that introduce a variety of methods to understand and assess the impact of institutional organizational culture on institutional internationalization. The literature review concludes by suggesting areas for further research.

 Introduction 
  Internationalization, at the national, sector and institutional levels, is defined by Knight (2003) as “the process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of post-secondary education” (p. 2). Hudzik’s (2011) definition of comprehensive internationalization expands on Knight’s (2004) definition by identifying how internationalization impacts all aspects of post-secondary institutions. Comprehensive internationalization “…shapes institutional ethos and values and touches the entire education enterprise. It is essential that is be embraced by institutional leadership, governance, faculty, students and all academic and support units” (Hudzik, 2011, p. 6). Hudzik (2011) concluded that comprehensive internationalization is “an institutional imperative” that “impacts all of campus life” (p. 6). 

  Internationalization is an increasingly high priority on the agenda of post-secondary institutions in response to both internal and external stakeholder pressures and expectations (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada, 2007; Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, 2012). Internally, universities seek to create global citizens, build international partnerships and increase enrolments (AUCC, 2007). Externally, the Canadian federal and provincial governments are interested in post-secondary education helping to create a knowledgeable workforce and respond to national and provincial labour market needs (AUCC, 2007; DFAIT, 2012). In response to the rapid growth and increasing importance of internationalization, researchers began to assess organizational aspects of post-secondary institutions as a means to understand which institutional factors fostered or inhibited internationalization. Organizational culture is one such factor (Agnew & VanBalkom, 2009).

  The least understood aspect of organizational change in higher education is the impact of organizational CBIE PhD RESEARCH SERIES 2 culture (Tierney, 1988). Successful organizational change occurs when it is intentional, planned and reflective of an institution’s culture (Kotter, 1996; McCaffery, 2010). Institutional leadership is often well versed in addressing operational and structural changes, yet the ability to create sustainable change is dependent upon the ability to integrate change into the organizational “way of doing things,” referring to the organization’s culture (Schein, 2010). Bartell (2003) observed that an institution’s organizational culture may foster or inhibit internationalization. Agnew and VanBalkom (2009) identified organizational culture as a key indicator of successful organizational change, noting that institutional leaders desiring to create and implement effective internationalization strategies need to understand their institution’s organizational culture.

 Organizational Culture in Higher Education 
  Schein (2010), Tierney (1988) and Sporn (1996) are experts in organizational culture theory and are frequently cited in the relatively recent research about organizational culture and internationalization (Bartell, 2003; Agnew & VanBalkom, 2009). Schein has written numerous works on organizational culture, his most recent monograph (2010) is cited in this review. Tierney (1988) is credited with being one of the first to apply the concepts of organizational culture from business literature to research in higher education. Sporn (1996) developed a typology of four types of university culture that can be applied to understanding how a specific institution’s culture responds to change. 

  Schein (2010) defined organizational culture as “a set of basic tacit assumptions about how the world is, and ought to be, that a group of people share and that determines their perceptions, thoughts, feelings and to some degree their overt behavior” (p. 11). Tierney (1988) described organizational culture as “webs of significance” (p. 4) that occur in an organizational setting. Sporn (1996) identified universities as being “complex social organizations with distinctive cultures” (p. 41). Tierney (1988) stated that organizational culture is a force that is derived from “from the values, processes, and goals held by those most intimately involved in the organization’s workings” (p. 3). Organizational culture reflects shared beliefs about “how things are done around here” (p. 3) as manifested through language, symbols, rituals, values, beliefs and behaviour (Tierney, 1988). Schein (2010) identified “artifacts”, “espoused beliefs and values”, and “basic underlying assumptions” (p. 24) as the three key levels of organizational culture.

  Artifacts include “visible and feelable structures and processes” (Schein, 2010, p. 24). Espoused beliefs and values articulate the goals, values, aspirations, ideologies and rationalizations of the culture (Schein, 2010).Underlying assumptions are the “unconscious, taken-for-granted beliefs and values” (Schein, 2010, p. 24). Schein (2010) observed that ultimately, for a leader to successfully engage organizational members in change, she or he must be able to understand the organizational culture. Tierney (1988) and Sporn (1996) noted that universities are complex and contain multiple variations of organizational culture — such as individual, disciplinary and institutional levels. 

  Tierney (1988), like Schein (2010) believed that the lack of understanding of organizational culture exhibited by leaders in higher education was inhibiting their ability to lead their institutions to effectively address the challenges facing higher education. Tierney (1988) thought that by studying organizational culture, higher education administrators could enhance their daily decision making. In order to study an institution’s organizational culture Tierney (1988) created an assessment instrument that he called “A Framework of Organizational Culture” (p. 8). Tierney’s (1988) framework for understanding organizational culture used six concepts: environment, mission, socialization, information, strategy and leadership. 

  For each of the six concepts, Tierney (1988) introduced a series of questions that administrators could ask to help obtain relevant information that would contribute to an overall organizational culture assessment. Within the framework, several questions are linked to each concept. For example, linked to the concept environment is the question “How does the organization define its environment?”; linked to the concept of mission is the question “Is it used as a basis for decisions?”; linked to the concept of strategy is the question “What is the penalty for bad decisions?”; and linked to the concept of leadership is the question “What does the organization expect from its leaders?” (Tierney, 1988, p. 8). This article concluded with a case study using the organizational culture framework to analyze and assess the organizational culture of a university. Sporn (1996) described the organizational culture of universities as complex and comprised of five unique characteristics: ambivalent goals; different constituencies; problematic standards; autonomy and freedoms; and environmental vulnerability. Sporn (1996) introduced a typology to be used as a model to position universities with respect to the strength and orientation of the institutional culture. 

  Strength indicated the level of congruence between cultural values, structura arrangements and strategic plans. A strong culture had high congruence; a weak culture lacked congruence and had multiple contradictory cultures. Orientation referred to whether the focus of values, attitudes, beliefs and behavior of institutional members was directed at activities primarily external to the organization or primarily internal. Sporn (1996) found that externally oriented cultures were able to adapt to changes in the external environment whereas internally oriented cultures did not pay attention to the external environment and did not perceive a need to change. （essay代写)

  Sporn’s (1996) typology is illustrated in a model with four quadrants: weak-internal; weak-external; strong-internal; strongexternal. Sporn (1996) found that strong externally oriented organizational cultures were more adaptable to environmental changes, and more responsive to management leadership than weak internally focussed organizational cultures. Tierney (1988), Schein (2010) and Sporn (1996) each identified key components for understanding organizational culture. Tierney (1988) and Sporn (1996) created tools that could be used to assess and understand the organizational culture within individual post-secondary institutions. The emerging research on organizational culture and internationalization frequently cites the work of these three researchers.（essay代写)

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