Studies on entrepreneurship--论文代写范文精选

首先,考虑公司的性能,各种研究发现,投资回报的私人部门并不比上市公司相差太大。在企业家的性能方面,一些研究布兰奇福劳和奥斯瓦尔德等发现,在许多情况下，个体户的收入低于工人。下面的essay代写范文继续对研究进行讲述。

Studies of Population Ecology of Organizations
The above two results culled from industrial organization are independently supported (at least partially) by organization theorists who use an evolutionary and/or population ecology perspective (Aldrich and Fiol 1994). Population ecologists have found that success rates of organizations are age dependent. As concisely summarized by Henderson (1999), this literature does not always agree on the exact relationship between the age of a firm and its probability of success or failure. While some stress the liability of newness as a factor of firm failure (e.g. Stinchcombe 1965; Hannan and Freeman 1984), others argue that there is an early window of survival due to the initial stock of assets acquired at founding after which the liability of adolescence takes over and reduces the life expectancy of firms 6 (Bruderl and Schlussler 1990; Fichman and Levinthal 1991). But besides the high probability of infant (or adolescent) mortality, this literature also finds a high probability of failure due to old age when firms tend to become highly inertial and misaligned with their environments (Baum 1989; Barron et.al. 1994). Neither the industrial organization literature, nor the one based on population ecology addresses the success or failure rates of entrepreneurs.

From Studies of Labor and Micro Economics 
There are at least two stylized facts that emerge from economists’ studies of entrepreneurial performance. First, in considerations of firm performance, a variety of studies from Christensen (1971) to Moskowitz and Vissing-Jorgensen (2002) find that returns to investment in the private (non-corporate) sector are not significantly different than those achieved by publicly traded corporations. Second, in terms of entrepreneur performance, several studies such as Blanchflower and Oswald (1998) and Hamilton (2000) find that the earnings of the self-employed are in many instances lower than those of comparable paid workers. This effect is worse when so-called “star” performers are taken out of the sample of self-employed. Also, this result has been independently verified by business management scholars such as Gimeno et.al. (1997). 

Taken together, these two facts throw up an interesting puzzle as to why people choose to become entrepreneurs and invest their net worth in (presumably) high risk ventures, when they do not stand to gain substantial premia over less risky investments in public equity markets. The predominant answer to this puzzle seems to consist in the argument that non-pecuniary benefits matter – all the studies cited above make the case for non-pecuniary benefits to varying degrees. Furthermore, several of these studies convincingly rule out the selection argument advanced by sociologists – i.e., that less able individuals (or “misfits”) select themselves into self-employment. There is also some evidence that the longer the self-employed remain self-employed the less likely they are to exit entrepreneurship and rejoin the workforce. 

Perhaps the most interesting study of the relationship between the two spaces of firm performance and entrepreneur performance is Holmes and Schmitz (1995) that looks at two types of small business failure – discontinuance through closure and discontinuance through sale – and relates them to the age of the business and tenure of the manager (who may be a founder or a non-founder). The study explicitly seeks to separate the manager from the business (1995, p. 1007). In particular, it theorizes about two qualities associated with firm failure – one that is characteristic of the business opportunity (as distinct from the abilities of the manager) and another that is specific to the match between manager and business. The results of the study can be summarized as follows: Most new businesses are of poor quality; the better ones get sold; and of those that get sold, the ones that survive tend to have high match quality between manager and business. In other words, as the authors aver, “who is managing the business matters” (1995, p. 1037). With regard to differences between non-founders and founder managers, “among businesses of the same age, businesses owned by non-founders of 0-2 years have higher discontinuance rates than businesses owned by their founders (except for the very oldest businesses, those with more than 23 years)” (1995, p. 1032). 

Arguably, then, founders are more likely to have found better match quality in the businesses that they found. Even this lone study that explicitly seeks to separate out firm performance from manager/entrepreneur performance does not have any data on founder experience – i.e. the number of startups the founder has been previously involved with – and its effect on performance in the long run. In sum, it is clear that there is a lot of work yet to be done in characterizing and developing a deeper understanding of serial entrepreneurship. In our research program, therefore, we seek to investigate the role of entrepreneurial experience in the performance of firms and entrepreneurs through the study of serial or multiple entrepreneurs – entrepreneurs who start several firms, some successful and others not. But before we turn to that task, we briefly summarize what we do know about the phenomenon and outline the possible impact that serious scholarship in this area could achieve.

From Entrepreneurship Research 
Entrepreneurship scholars do worry about entrepreneurs as well as firms. All the same, it is in this literature that the greatest confounding between firms and entrepreneurs occurs. For example, there is a rather large stream of effort in this literature devoted to the traits and characteristics of entrepreneurs 8 and how they affect firm performance. In a comprehensive review of this stream, Gartner (1988) identified a number of studies starting around the middle of the twentieth century that focused on the personality of the entrepreneur as a predictor of firm success. He argued for the futility of the traits approach since it sought to separate “the dancer from the dance” and in over three decades did not result in any clear understanding of the phenomena concerned with firm creation. （essay代写)

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