Issues in Statistical Inference--论文代写范文精选

然而,这并不意味着任何两种方法收集的数据也同样明确。模棱两可的数据方法优于收益率更模糊的数据。尽管该报告断言,其中一些研究方法的收益率比其他人更有价值。下面的essay代写范文进行详述。

Abstract
Being critical of using significance tests in empirical research, the Board of Scientific Affairs (BSA) of the American Psychological Association (APA) convened a task force "to elucidate some of the controversial issues surrounding applications of statistics including significance testing and its alternatives; alternative underlying models and data transformation; and newer methods made possible by powerful computers" (BSA; quoted in the report by Wilkinson & Task Force, 1999, p. 594). Guidelines are stipulated in the report for revising the statistical sections of the APA Publication Manual. Some assertions in the report about research methodology are reasonable. An example is the statement, "There are many forms of empirical studies in psychology, including case reports, controlled experiments, quasi-experiments, statistical simulations, surveys, observational studies, and studies of studies (meta-analyses) ... each form of research has its own strengths, weaknesses, and standard of practice" (Wilkinson & Task Force, 1999, p. 594).

However, it does not follow that data collected with any two methods are equally unambiguous. At the same time, a method that yields less ambiguous data is methodological superior to one that yields more ambiguous data. That is, despite the assertions made in the report, a case can be made that "some of these [research methods] yield information that is more valuable or credible than others" (Wilkinson & Task Force, 1999, p. 594). It is unfortunate that the report reads more like an advocacy document than an objective assessment of the role of statistics in empirical research. Moreover, non-psychologist readers of the report can be excused for having a low opinion of psychologists' research practice and methodological sophistication.

The 'Convenience' Sample, Representativeness and Independence of Observations
If we can neither implement randomization nor approach total control of variables that modify effects (outcomes), then we should use the term "control group" cautiously. In most of these cases, it would be better to forgo the term and use "contrast group" instead. In any case, we should describe exactly which confounding variables have been explicitly controlled and speculate about which unmeasured ones could lead to incorrect inferences.

In the absence of randomization, we should do our best to investigate sensitivity to various untestable assumptions. (Wilkinson & Task Force, 1999, p. 595, emphasis in italics added) A non-randomly selected sample is characterized as a "convenience sample" (Wilkinson & Task Force, 1999, p.595). It is a label apparently applicable to most samples used in psychological research because most experimental subjects are college student-volunteers. However, a case can be made that using such non-random samples does not necessarily detract from the findings generality. Nor does such a practice violate the requirement that data from different subjects be statistically independent. More importantly, using non-random samples is not antithetical to experimental controls.

Suppose that, on the basis of the data collected from student-subjects, Experimenter E draws a conclusion about memory. The non-random nature of the sample would not affect the objectivity of the finding when the validity of the experiment is assessed with reference to unambiguous, theoretically informed criteria. At worst, one may question the generality of the experimental conclusion. Perhaps, this is the real point of the "Sample" section (Wilkinson & Task Force, 1999, p. 595), as witnessed by its reservations about the representativeness of the convenience sample. Although non-random selection of research participants jeopardizes the generality of survey studies, random subject-selection may not be necessary for generality in cognitive psychology. For instance, a non-random sample in an opinion survey about an election may be selected by stationing the enumerators at the entrance of a shopping mall.

The representativeness of the opinion of such a sample (of the entire electorate's opinion) is suspect because patrons of the particular shopping mall may over-represent one social group, but under-represent another social strata. This is crucial because political opinion and socio-economic status are not independent. In contrast, consider a student-subject sample of a study of the capacity of the short-term store. As there is no reason to doubt the similarity between college students' short-term store capacity and that of the adult population at large, it is reasonable to assume that the student-subject sample is representative of all adults in the said capacity despite that no random selection is carried out. That is, random selection is not always required for establishing the generality of the result when there is neither a theoretical nor an empirical reason to question the representativeness of the sample in the context of the experiment.

The psychologist's practice of using student-subjects is further justified by the fact that psychologists employ student-subjects in a theoretically informed way. For example, in testing a theory about verbal coding, the experimenter may use only female students. The experimenter may use only right-handed students when the research concern is a theory about laterality or hemispheric specialization. Students may be screened with the appropriate psychometric tests before being included in a study about attitude. In short, depending on the theoretical requirement, psychologists adopt special subject-selection criteria even when they use studentsubjects. Moreover, psychologists do select subjects from outside the student-subject pools when required (e.g., they use hyperactive boys to study theories of hyperactivity). The mode of subject-selection is always explicitly described in such an event. That is, psychologists' convenience samples do not detract from the data's generality. Furthermore, psychologists describe only those procedural features that deviate from the usual, well-understood and warranted practice.

A crucial assumption underlying statistical procedures (be it significance test, confidence-interval estimate or regression analysis) is that observations are independent of one another. It can be illustrated that cognitive psychologists' use of non-randomly selected student-subjects does not violate this independence assumption. Consider the case in which, having discussed among themselves, twenty students decide to participate in the same memory experiment. This is non-random subject-selection par excellence. Suppose further that subjects, whose task is to recall multiple 10-word lists in the order they are presented, are tested individually. The words and their order of appearance are randomized from trial to trial. Under such circumstances, not only would an individual subject's performance be independent of that of other subjects, the subject's performance is also independent of his or her own performance from list to list. In other words, to ensure statistical independence of observations, what needs to be randomized is the stimulus material or its mode of presentation, not individual subjects. Such a randomized procedure ensures that non-randomly selected subjects may still produce statistically independent data.

Summary
It is true that "each form of research has its own strengths, weaknesses, and standard of practice" (Wilkinson & Task Force, 1999, p. 594). However, this state of affairs does not invalidate the fact that some research methods yield less ambiguous data than others. Nor does it follow that all methodological weaknesses are equally tolerable if the researcher aims at methodological validity and conceptual rigor. Having a standard of practice per se is irrelevant to the validity of the research method. To introduce the criteria of being valuable or credible in methodological discussion is misleading because "being valuable" or "being credible" is not a methodological criterion. Moreover, "being valuable" or "being credible" may be in the eye of the beholder. This state of affairs is antithetical to objectivity.（essay代写)

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