Do pheromones infl uence human behavior--论文代写范文精选

在后续研究中，关于男性雄烯酮的影响力点进行评价,是否他们喜欢雄烯酮的香味。在类似的研究中,男性和女性受试者对男性荷尔蒙进行了研究。下面的report代写范文进行详述。

Abstract 
Pheromones seem to play an important role in mammalian social and sexual behavior. This suggests that the investigation of pheromone effects in humans is warranted. An early study showed that skin conduction in subjects exposed to androstenone was 1.5 times higher than in the control group [53]. These fi ndings provided clues to the potential physiological effects of the 16-androstenes. In a study by Cowley and Brooksbank [54] 38 men and 38 women wore a necklace with a pendant containing androstenol during sleep. The next morning, the number of social interactions of the subjects was assessed and it showed that women wearing the necklace had had signifi cantly more and more intensive contact with men than subjects in the control group. It was presumed that human pheromones had the potential to facilitate inter-sex communication. 

Another research team investigated the infl uence of odorous substances on photo assessment [55]. Two hundred men and women were told to rate a photo of a male person and to rate their own mood under the infl uence of androstenone. Men rated the person in the photo as “passive” and women reported their own mood to be less “sexy”. In a follow-up study men under the infl uence of androstenone rated photos of males positively, if they liked the scent of androstenone [56]. In a similar study, male and female subjects rated photos of people, animals, and buildings under the infl uence of androstenol [57]. Subjects wearing masks impregnated with androstenol rated the photos of women as more attractive, more sexy, and friendlier, and rated the photos of men warmer and friendlier than subjects in the control groups. 

The infl uence of human pheromones on social behavior may pale by comparison to the infl uence that pheromones may have on human reproduction. Olfactory cues are essential in animal, especially mammalian, sexual behavior. In humans these olfactory cues are diffi cult to isolate and related discussions have lead to controversy. 

Nonetheless, humans are capable of discriminating between males and females by olfac tory cues alone [58]. The afore-mentioned sex differences in the composition of human axillary secretions may be the basis for such discrimination. Pheromones also infl uence the human menstrual cycle. McClintock [59] found that female college students, who spent signifi cant amounts of time together showed synchrony of their menstrual cycle, and attributed this synchrony to odors (pheromones). A few years later this fi nding was bolstered by another study [60]. Sweat samples of 5 women with regular 29-days-cycles were taken daily. These donor samples were applied to the upper lips of the female test subjects 3 times a week for 4 months. By the end of the test period, test subjects menstruated signifi cantly more often at the same time as the donors than subjects in the control group. 

It became clearer that menstrual synchrony, which also is indicative of ovulatory synchrony, is controlled by pheromones. In a parallel study, the infl uence of male odors on the menstrual cycle was tested [61]. Odor samples of male axillary secretions were again applied to the upper lips of female test subjects. Those who were not sexually active had irregular menstrual cycles at the beginning of the experiment. After 4 months the mean cycle length was 29.5 ± 3 days length in a majority of the test subjects. This strongly suggested that male pheromones have a regulatory effect on the menstrual cycle. Many authors have speculated that both androstenone and androstenol are male pheromones, raising the questions of whether and how females perceive them. Filsinger, Braun and Monte [62] showed that the application of androstenone to females led to negative descriptions of males whereas the application of androstenol led to a description of males as being sexually attractive. 

It has been shown repeatedly that females either fi nd the odor of androstenol to be attractive, or that the perception of this odor results in heightened female sexual arousal [63]. These results indicate that androstenol can induce positive, while androstenone induces negative emotions towards males, and suggest that androstenol may be a male pheromone that enhances attractiveness. Maiworm [64] found that females perceive males positively under exposure to androstenol and negatively under exposure to androstenone. The fi nding that females are emotionally more affected by androstenone and androstenol than by control substances like rose water, led to the hypothesis that both androstenone and androstenol might be male pheromones. The role of androstenol in any hypothetical signaling system is clear, since it seems to promote female sexual attraction towards males. 

However, problems arise in attempts to determine the function of androstenone, which induces negative female emotions towards males. Besides, androstenone is the more prominent odor. Thus, the odor of androstenone will prevail, whereas the fresh sweat odor of androstenol disappears quickly. The fact that the production of attractiveness-enhancing androstenol inevitably produces the repellent androstenone makes it diffi cult to propose a defi nite advantage for the sender of such chemical signals compared to a non-sender. Arguably, a pheromone function of both substances is unlikely. If a male repels females with androstenone, this would contradict hypotheses, which assert male promiscuity on an evolutionary basis [65]. A less odorous male could out reproduce a more odorous male, simply because he could approach more females in less time and with less energy. 

This only holds if the costs of the more odorous androstenone production are greater than the benefi ts reached through producing the more sexually attractive androstenol. As androstenol oxidizes to androstenone the initial attractive signal becomes repellent. Because this effect takes place within 20 minutes [66], a less odorous male would be better off, since the repellent smell of androstenone is the long-term prevailing signal. If androstenone is a signal for females, then what advantages do more odorous males have? The situation is further complicated by the fact that olfactory acuity and specifi city is modulated by the menstrual cycle [67]. Both acuity and sensitivity to putative human male pheromones appears to peak at ovulation. Schneider [68] proposed that females have a higher olfactory acuity at ovulation and Doty, Snyder, Huggins and Lowry [69] showed a direct correlation between estrogen levels, LH levels, and heightened olfactory sensitivity. 

These changes in olfaction during the menstrual cycle extend well to the odor of androstenol, and in general to the more “musky” odors typical of males. Benton [70] showed that the application of androstenol to the upper lip of females made them rate their mood at the time of ovulation as more submissive. In contrast, Filsinger and Monte [71] found no clear link between sexual history and the perception of androstenone. However, the absence of a correlate might well be explained by research design that did not discriminate between females who take hormonal contraceptives and those who do not, since the estrogen component of contraceptive hormones can be expected to infl uence olfactory ability. Quite notable, however, is that nearly all studies have found that androstenone is rated negatively independent of the female cycle. These mixed fi ndings do not rule out the possibility that the female hormonal status may directly infl uence the perception of androstenone and androstenol. 

Maiworm [64] found that at different periods in the menstrual cycle androstenone and androstenol had different effects. Contrary to expectations, these substances showed no effect during the middle period of the menstrual cycle, in which ovulation is possible. Rather, effects are greatest during the fi rst period of the menstrual cycle. At the same time, both pleasant and less pleasant effects may be observed in the fi nal period of the cycle. Overall, results suggest the existence of two different olfactory signals: androstenol, which induces female attraction to males, and androstenone, which induces negative emotions in females. The functional assessment of such a positive-negative mood-inducing signal requires consideration of a set of evolutionary hypotheses.(论文代写)

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